Background
The field of language teaching for young learners has evolved significantly, yet it remains distinct from the mainstream literature on second and foreign language teaching. Historically, children as a learner demographic have received limited attention in TESOL and SLA research. Early recognition of the unique needs of young language learners emerged with the TESOL Quarterly's special issue on K-12 learners in 1991, marking a delayed acknowledgment of this population within English as a Second/Foreign Language (ES/FL) teaching research (Faltis & Hudelson, 1991). Since then, there has been a gradual but notable shift, particularly with greater emphasis on K-12 education at the TESOL International Convention (Latterly, 2002).
Key approaches in language teaching for young learners vary based on geographic and pedagogical contexts. In the U.S., the focus has largely been on developing literacy skills, reflecting broader curricular priorities. In contrast, the U.K. has emphasized "oracy"—the development of oral language skills—driven by politically motivated curriculum reforms that prioritize speech and pronunciation (Penate Cabrera & Bazo Martinez, 2001). Furthermore, while English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction for children has been more extensively studied, the literature on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners remains comparatively underdeveloped, with differences between the two often overlooked (Ji, 1999).
Who Are Young Learners?
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Young learners, typically aged 5 to 12, vary significantly in maturity due to factors such as culture, environment, and individual development (Philips, 1993). Teachers must recognize these differences, focusing on children’s attitudes, interests, and circumstances rather than their chronological age when planning activities.
Yetenberg (1990) noted that young learners may struggle to distinguish between real and imaginary worlds, which can challenge teachers to align lessons with their perceptions. Young children are holistic learners, responding to the overall meaning of language (Philips, 1993). Slattery and Willis (2001) added that young learners are curious, imaginative, and playful, benefiting from repetition, variety, and hands-on learning experiences. They thrive on group activities, use language skills naturally, and learn through movement, gestures, and mimicry.
Teaching Methodology and Strategies
Enright (1986) provided a foundational perspective on effective teaching practices for young learners. Based on observations of a successful kindergarten ESL classroom, Enright highlighted the importance of the following elements:
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Teachers should adapt input to meet the developmental and linguistic needs of children.
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Techniques such as repetition, rephrasing, and the use of sensory aids (e.g., realia, gestures, and visual materials) were instrumental in fostering engagement and comprehension.
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Teachers should take into account the transition from highly contextualized routines to decontextualized language use, enabling children to gradually develop their semantic-syntactic competencies.
References
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1986. Enright, D. S. "Use everything you have to teach English": providing useful input to young language learners. In P. Rigg & D. S. Enright (Eds.), Children and ESL: integrating perspectives (pp. 115-162). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
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1991. TESOL Quarterly 28(3). Special issue: K-12. Faltis & Hudelson, eds.
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1999. Ji, Yuhua. Communicative Language-Teaching through Sandwich Stories for EFL children in China. TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL du Canada, 17(1), 103-113.
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2001. Penate Cabrera, M. & Bazo Martinez, P. The effects of repetition, comprehension checks, and gestures, on primary school children in an EFL situation. English Language Teaching Journal, 55(3), 281-288.
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Phillips, S. (1993). Young learners. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
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Slattery, M., & Willis, J. (2001). English for Primary Teachers. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
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Ytreberg, L., & Scott, W. (1990). Teaching English to Children. Longman: New York.
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
The references in this section were primarily derived from SLS 612 class notes.
Further readings
ES/FL
1980. Holden, Susan. Teaching children. London: Modern English Publishers.
1983. Dunn, Opal. Beginning English with young children. London: Macmillan.
1985. Tough, Joan. Talk two: children using English as a second language in primary schools. London: Onyx Press/Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
1988. D. Scott Enright & Mary Lou McCloskey.. Integrating English: developing English language and literacy in the multilingual classroom. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
1991. TESOL Quarterly 28(3). Special issue: K-12. Faltis & Hudelson, eds.
1991. Chris Kennedy & Jennifer Jarvis (eds.). Ideas and issues in primary ELT. London: Nelson.
1993. Klein, Kerstin. Teaching young learners. English Teaching Forum (April), 14-17.
1993. Phillips, Sarah. Young learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1993. Piper, Terry. And then there were two: children and second language learning. Markham, Ontario: Pippin Pub.
1994. Blackledge, A. (ed.)Teaching bilingual children. Stoke-on-Trent, UK: Trentham.
1994. Genesee, Fred (ed.). Educating second language children: the whole child, the whole curriculum, the whole community. New York: Cambridge University Press. LC3725 .E38 1994.
1995. Vale, David, with Anne Feunteun. Teaching children English: a training course for teachers of English to children. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1997. Ghosh, Irma K. ESL with children's literature. English Teaching Forum (July), 14-19, 29.
1997. Tabors. Patton O. One child, two languages: a guide for preschool educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
1998. Sears, Coreen. Second language students in mainstream classrooms: a handbook for teachers in international schools. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters,
1999. Ji, Yuhua. Communicative Language-Teaching through Sandwich Stories for EFL children in China. TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL du Canada, 17(1), 103-113.
2000. Hird, B., Thwaite, A., Breen, M., Milton, M., & Oliver, R. Teaching English as a second language to children and adults: variations in practices. Language Teaching Research, 4(1) 3-32.
2001. Penate Cabrera, M. & Bazo Martinez, P. The effects of repetition, comprehension checks, and gestures, on primary school children in an EFL situation. English Language Teaching Journal, 55(3), 281-288.
ORACY
1968. Harvey, Basil. The scope of oracy; teaching spoken English. Oxford: Pergamon Press. PE1066 .H36 1968
1988. Margaret MacLure, Terry Phillips, Andrew Wilkinson (Eds.). Oracy matters: the development of talking and listening in education. Milton Keynes; Open University Press. LB1139.L3 O68 1988
1992. Kate Norman (ed.) Thinking voices: the work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder & Stoughton. LB1033.5 .T45 1992
1998. Jackie Holderness and Barbara Lalljee (eds.). An introduction to oracy: frameworks for talk. London: Cassell. P95.3.I57 1998
1998. E. Grugeon et al. Teaching speaking and listening in the primary school. Heinemann.
OTHER RELAVENT TITLES
Chase, P., & J. Doan. 1996. Choosing to learn: ownership and responsibility in an primary multiage classroom. Heinemann.
Meyer, J. W., Kamens, D. H., & Benavor, A. 1992. School knowledge for the masses: world models and national primary curricular categories in the twentieth century. Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
Pappas, C. C., Kiefer, B. Z., & Levstik, L. S. (eds.). 1999. An integrated language perspective in the elementary school (3rd. edn.). New York: Longman.